![]() A distinction is also typically drawn between virtual (simulations, visualization, or computational approximations of behavior) and physical models (Stowe Reference Stowe2008). Another common distinction is the variable level of fidelity of a prototype with respect to the final model (Lim, Stolterman & Tenenberg Reference Lim, Stolterman and Tenenberg2008 Stowe Reference Stowe2008). A typical first taxonomic division is between prototypes that address form and those that address function (Otto & Wood Reference Otto and Wood2001 Michaelraj Reference Michaelraj2009 Pei, Campbell & Evans Reference Pei, Campbell and Evans2011). Several detailed taxonomies of prototypes have been proposed. Designers may explicitly consider what type of testing will be performed with the prototype (Otto & Wood Reference Otto and Wood2001). Therefore, a prototyping strategy should be carefully planned (Drezner Reference Drezner1992). This strategy influences the nature of information that can be explored and learned from the prototype (Gero Reference Gero1990). Thus, each prototyping effort requires a certain unique strategy to resolve a design problem or opportunity. Some are driven by achieving specifications (typically those developing large and complex systems), while others, typically more agile firms, focus on prototyping to explore and develop a new concept (Schrage Reference Schrage1993). There are overall trends in how individual industries approach prototyping (Schrage Reference Schrage1993). The triumph of Dyson’s cyclonic vacuum was only achieved after 5,127 prototypes (Dyson & Coren Reference Dyson and Coren2001). Henry Ford explored at least nineteen models (some of which were prototypes) before finalizing the revolutionary model T design (Womack, Jones & Roos Reference Womack, Jones and Roos2008). Palladio used full-scale wooden prototypes of architectural elements to plan costly stone works (Sass & Oxman Reference Sass and Oxman2006). Michelangelo used physical prototypes to communicate construction details, and for marketing to investors (Sass & Oxman Reference Sass and Oxman2006). Design and prototyping have been interwoven throughout history. This review aims to provide a resource for designers as well as set a trajectory for continuing innovation in the scientific research of design prototyping.Ī prototype is an artifact that approximates a feature (or multiple features) of a product, service, or system (Otto & Wood Reference Otto and Wood2001). The review concludes with a summary of key observations, highlighted opportunities in the research, and a vision of the future of prototyping. Compact descriptions of each technique provide a foundation to compare the potential benefits and drawbacks of each. Techniques are roughly categorized into those that improve the outcomes of prototyping directly, and those that enable prototyping through lowering of cost and time. The review is supported with exemplar prototypes provided from industrial design efforts. ![]() Insights are synthesized from critical review of the literature: key objectives of prototyping, critical review of major techniques, relationships between techniques, and a strategy matrix to connect objectives to techniques. The study is focused around design prototyping for early stage design. This review surveys literature sources in engineering, management, design science, and architecture. Prototyping often predetermines a large portion of resource deployment in development and influences design project success. A prototype is a pre-production representation of some aspect of a concept or final design. Prototyping is interwoven with nearly all product, service, and systems development efforts.
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